As a team, stake a claim about whether or not the government should allow Gene Therapy research. Justify your choice.

Gene therapy is the process of inserting genes into cells of an individual in order to correct a gene product that is inherited. It has been practiced in a limited manner. Our team does not think that the government should allow for Gene therapy research because its not right. It could have some benefits, but you don't know where gene therapy could do.  Since it hasn't been researched enough, you never know what the outcome might be. It has been associated with several deaths and cancers. It shouldn't be allowed if all its going to do is make a person die or become sick than they already are. Also, all the deaths and cancers arising have slowed the development on new therapies. Its not right to spend time on one kind of therapy, when you could be researching something else that would help a human better. Functional genes are inserted into sperm or egg cells, and that seems pretty dangerous. Those genes being inserted could cause a serious problem. Also, with Gene therapy, you are going against God's wishes. Its his choice on how he wants a person to turn out to be. Its not right to go back and try to make genes better, because it could end up killing a person. It is not ethical because it is a form of human engineering. Humans should not be messed with. Because of the deadly outcomes, the government should stay away from Gene therapy research.

Kharishma Patel, Jeswina John, Miranda Juergens, Deepthy Varghese

Medical Microbiology, 8th period, Rickard

Discuss genetic mutation:

A. Point mutations (including base pair change), frameshift mutations (including insertion and deletion), and nondisjunction:

A point mutation is a simple change in one of the bases of the gene sequence. For an example, using a sentence, where one letter in a sentence, such as this example, where we change the 'c' in cat to an 'h': 

Original	The fat cat ate the wee rat.
Point Mutation	The fat hat ate the wee rat.

 

In a frame shift mutation, one or more bases are inserted or deleted. Because our cells read DNA in three letter "words", adding or removing one letter changes each following word. This type of mutation can make the DNA meaningless and often results in a shortened protein. An example of a frame-shift mutation using a sentence is when the ’t’ from cat is removed, but we keep the original letter spacing:

 

Original	The fat cat ate the wee rat.
Frame Shift	The fat caa tet hew eer at.

 

Nondisjunction is when chromosomes fail to split apart during cell division. This is where an chromosome goes to both daughter cells, and nowhere else. Nondisjunction is when there are errors made in chromosome numbers. Common examples are, Trisomy 21, Down syndrome, and monosomy x.

B. Mutations that result during mitosis (body cells) and meiosis (gametes or sex cells)

Mutations in mitosis will be unavoidably inherited, unless a mutation occurs for it by duplicate descendants of a single-celled organism. Mutations in mitosis can include any mutations that revolve around chromosomes, such as Down’s syndrome. Cancer can also be a mutation. In meiosis cell division results in haploid sex cells. Mutation can occur in either parent as a legacy of its coming into mitosis or at the time of zygote formation. This is where nondisjuction is.

C. Results of these mutations in the individual as well as in the offspring

The organism can come out with having Down Syndrome, genetic disorders, differences in skin colors, eyes, multiple fingers, etc. Frame shift and nondisjunction may affect the offspring. 

Kharishma Patel, Jeswina John, Miranda Juergens, Deepthy Varghese

Medical Microbiology, 8th period, Rickard

Team stakes a claim about whether or not the government should allow Designer babies and why.

Designer babies should not be permitted by the government, because it’s wrong and unethical on so many levels. If the government were to allow parents to actually do it, then you don’t know what the consequences would be. A new disease may pop up that nobody knows about and has no cure for. Also, why would you change how a baby looks if you don’t know how they are going to look like in the first place? They may turn out to look better than you thought they would be. To some religions, it might not be moral. It is God’s job to create human beings, and it’s his decision on whether he wants to give a baby blue eyes or brown eyes. The traits that a baby naturally has are God’s gift. It is not right to not accept what God gives you. It’s also not in our hands to make a baby look like how they want. As for diseases, babies who have Down syndrome or any disease similar to it are God’s little angels for the world. God made those little kids to bring light to our life, not to ruin their own life. There is always a good future stored for them. These kids are also the sweetest kids you will ever meet, and there is nothing wrong with them, because they still have the same feelings we do. Also, if people were constantly picking out the most desirable traits, there would be no diversity whatsoever. A whole generation may end up looking the same, and there would be no individuality. There would be no flaws that make a person naturally beautiful. Poor families might not be able to afford making designer babies, so they may end up feeling like their baby is not good enough. Last but not least, it doesn’t matter how a person looks on the outside. All the matters is if a person has a good personality. If you give the government the ability to let people design babies, then you are also giving the government the permission to lose individuality. Therefore making designer babies should be prohibited. 

-By Kharishma Patel, Deepthy Varghese, Jeswina John, and Miranda Juergens  

8th period, Medical Microbiology, Rickard

Analyze how protein synthesis works in terms of:

A.        Transcription of DNA and picture

Transcription is the process of copying the DNA. In a eukaryote, the DNA never leaves the nucleus. The copy is called mRNA. Transcription usually takes place in the cytoplasm of a prokaryote and in the nucleus of a eukaryote. This whole process is performed by an enzyme known as RNA polymerase. In order to make RNA a polymerase must first:

1. Bind to the DNA sequence at a specific sequence (the promoter)
2. Unlink and untangle the two strands of DNA
3. Use one of the DNA strands as a blueprint or guide
4. Match the new nucleotides in the right sequence in the DNA strand (G with C, A with
5. Bind the new RNA nucleotides together to form a copy of the DNA strand (mRNA)

B.     Various types of RNA and picture

The three types of RNA are known as mRNA, tRNA, and the rRNA. The RNA, mRNA, is also known as the messenger RNA. It contains information on the primary sequence of amino acids in a protein to be synthesized. It is the “blueprint” for the protein product. The mRNA carries the code into the cytoplasm where protein synthesis occurs. The anti-codons are used to “read” the mRNA codons. During the life of mRNA, it may be processed, edited and transported prior to translation. Eukaryotic mRNA molecules require extensive processing and prokaryotic mRNA does not. TRNA is known as the transfer RNA. It contains about 75 nucleotides, 3 anti-codons, and one amino acid. The tRNA reads the code and carries the amino acid to be included into the developing protein. There are at least 20 different tRNA’s - one for each amino acid. Part of the tRNA doubles back upon itself to form several double helical sections. The tRNA "reads" the mRNA codon by using its own anti-codon. Each codon is "read" by various tRNA's until the appropriate match of the anti-codon with the codon occurs. Last but not least, rRNA is known as ribosome RNA. In the cytoplasm, ribosome RNA and protein combine to form a nucleoprotein called a ribosome. The ribosome serves as the location and carries the enzymes necessary for protein synthesis. There are about equal parts rRNA and protein. The ribosome attaches itself to mRNA and provides the stabilizing structure to hold all substances in position as the protein is synthesized. Several ribosomes may be attached to a single RNA at any time.

b.       Translation and picture

In the process of translation, the ribosome synthesizes the proteins using the mRNA copy produced in transcription. A tRNA molecule transports amino acids to the ribosome. An anticodon attaches to a codon in the mRNA. A transfer RNA molecule transports other amino acids. A different transfer RNA molecule bonds with the mRNA at the ribosome. These codes must match. Finally a bond is formed between the amino acids. The ribosome then moves along the messenger RNA and exposes a new codon. (PICTURE WITH TRANSCRIPTION!)

C.        How amino acids are supplied

Amino acids are supplied from the food that goes in our mouth and our diet. It is important to eat certain foods which contain a lot of protein because if you don’t eat enough protein, then your body won’t have the efficient amounts of amino acids to perform their duties. High protein foods include meat, poultry, nuts, beans, seeds, etc. At cellular levels, every protein has to be linked to 3 amino acids.  

D.       How amino acids are linked

Amino acids are the basic building blocks of protein. There are 23 total amino acids, but only 20 of them are common. An amino acid links up to another amino acid by a condensation reaction to form a bond that is known as the peptide bond. This process continues until a polypeptide chain is formed.

E.        A codon chart and its function

A codon chart gives the genetic codes and arranges them in a tabular form of the codons for each amino acid in translation of mRNA into protein. It also shows the start and stop codons. The function of the codon chart is to tell the mRNA and tRNA which specific amino acid to get.

-By Kharishma Patel, Deepthy Varghese, Jeswina John, and Miranda Juergens  

8th period, Medical Microbiology, Rickard

 

Compare and contrast genetic technology in agriculture (genetically modified (GM) foods) with the genetic technology for human health.

Genetic technology used for agriculture and genetic technology used for human health are both used to manipulate genes. For example, you can use both of them to determine which traits you want, and which traits you don't want. For both, it's not natural because you're pretty much changing their destiny. Also, with both anything can go wrong. The genes of a fruit you manipulate could have a bad strain of disease with it, and the person whose genes you manipulate could turn out missing a limb or a body part. In contrast, in genetic technology for agriculture if something goes wrong, it wouldn't be such of a big deal because the fruit could be eaten or thrown away, and that's the last you would see of it. But if you mess up on genetic technology used for human health then you could potentially put the persons life on the line, cause defects to the body, or endorse a potential harmful disease. In genetic technology for agriculture its possible to create better tasting crops, like fruits, and it allows for an increase of supply in a short period of time. The effects of this would be short lasting, and after a while everyone would forget about it. On the other hand, with human health, all you can do is pick out the desired traits for one baby, you couldn't make a whole supply. The effects of this would be long lasting, because the human being would have to live through their whole life carrying that trait, and no one would forget about it. Despite the good outcomes of genetic technology, it still serves as a potential dangerous threat with bad outcomes.

-By Kharishma Patel, Deepthy Varghese, Jeswina John, and Miranda Juergens  

8th period, Medical Microbiology, Rickard

Compare and contrast DNA and RNA.

DNA and RNA are molecules that hold the genetic information for each cell. Although both DNA and RNA are alike in many ways, they also have their differences. They are similar because they both have polymers of nucleotides. Both DNA and RNA contain sugars and base pairs. DNA is linked to a phosphate at one end and a nitrogen base at the other just like RNA. DNA and RNA are both found in the nucleus, but RNA can also be found in the cytoplasm. DNA and RNA are different because in RNA one of the nitrogen bases is switched out. Instead of having the base (T) Thymine, RNA has the base (U), which is also known as uracil. Even their shapes are different; DNA has a double helix while RNA is just one stranded. While DNA holds the genetic information, RNA is the copy of the DNA that is transferred from the nucleus to the ribosome for making proteins. The sugar present is also different. DNA is made of deoxyribose sugar, and RNA is made out of ribose sugar. DNA has the bases adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine, while RNA has the bases adenine, uracil, guanine and cytosine. While RNA has short chain of nucleotides, DNA has long chain of nucleotides. Despite their similarities and differences, DNA and RNA both play a very important role in determining genetic information.

-By Kharishma Patel, Deepthy Varghese, Jeswina John, and Miranda Juergens  

8th period, Medical Microbiology, Rickard

Discuss the ethical dilemma of gene modification (designer babies). This post must include a minimum of 2 pros and 2 cons.

          Gene modification is the use of modern biotechnology techniques to change the genes of an organism. This is done by PGD, or Pre-implantation Genetic Diagnosis, in which doctors screen embryos before implanting them. Genes, which are made from DNA, are responsible for determining an organism's physical appearances, also known as phenotypes. Humans are often turning to gene modification which is also known as making "designer babies". Gene modification allows people, mainly couples, to be picky and choose specifically what genes they want for their child. Although gene modification might be ones first choice, it may not be the first choice for others. There are many positive and negative aspects of creating designer babies.

          One of the advantages is that gene modification allows people to design a baby specifically by their preferred standards. For example, if a mom wants her baby to have blue eyes instead of green eyes, or blonde hair instead of black hair, than she would easily be able to make that change. Another way gene modification be an advantage is because by looking at the genes, it is possible to determine if the baby will be born with any mutations or hereditary diseases. If this is caught at an earlier stage, then this would be prevented and the new life could live longer, and the family would be happy. It also gives the mother an advantage to choose traits that she considers good. If someone is going to have a baby it is most likely that they want their child to look the best, so therefore by picking preferable traits for the child she is giving birth to, she can stop worrying about how her baby will look like when it grows up.

          The negative side to gene modification on the other hand is that it isn’t natural. If you change a baby's physical appearance, then you are changing the physical appearance for the whole generation. The looks that are well known for in the family may not pass on. For example, if a family is known for having pretty brown eyes, and you "customize" your baby to having blue eyes, their kids will have blue eyes which would change up the family generation of having brown eyes. Genetic modification can also be a moral issue to some couples because in one's religion, questions could arise stating whether or not man has the right to manipulate and change the ways of God and nature itself. It could be believed that man cannot decide how a kid can look, and deciding so would be a violation to one's own morals. Another con is that if you already know how your baby is going to look, then it may not be much of a surprise. If genes are constantly crossing each other than it is possible that a whole new type of problem could arise, like a weird mutation, with an unknown solution. Even though you can prevent diseases, if couples are picking the most "popular" traits like blonde hair and blue eyes than most of the generation will end up looking alike. There wouldn't be anything that would distinguish ones phenotype from anothers. Also, if only the rich are able to customize their babies, than the poor may feel like they aren't beautiful enough and may develop low self-esteem. This could lead to a class system between the designer babies and the normal babies. Overall, gene modification has many advantages that could be very useful in human life, like preventing diseases, but you never know where it can lead you to. With gene modification, a whole generation might not have the certain flaws found in each person that makes a person beautiful and different from one another.

-By Kharishma Patel, Deepthy Varghese, Jeswina John, and Miranda Juergens  

8th period, Medical Microbiology, Rickard

Explain the connection of nitrogen base sequencing to unique DNA in organisms. You must include the nitrogen bases and their pairing.

DNA strands are composed of nucleotides which serve as building blocks of DNA and RNA. Each of these nucleotides contains a phosphate which is attached to a deoxyribose sugar, and one of the four bases which include: guanine, cytosine, adenine, and thymine. The base pairing is very important, because they can only pair a certain way. The nitrogen base guanine only pairs with cytosine, and the nitrogen base adenine only pairs with thymine. These base pairs are held together by hydrogen bonds. The nucleotides are arranged into a spiraled helix forming into what is known as DNA. It is very important for the nitrogen base structures to be paired correctly, because these nucleotides are what carry the genetic information in order to form a sequence of amino acids which leads to the creation of a protein strand. A single change in the nucleotide can cause a difference within DNA and can cause a change in the amino sequence of a protein. This is most commonly known as a mutation. A mutation is a failure to store genetic information correctly or faithfully. The way nitrogen bases are sequenced varies in different types of organisms. It turns out that different species of organisms have different proportions of bases in their DNA. This is what distinguishes each organism as different from each other. The only reason why humans aren't bananas is because humans have a different number of proportions in their bases than bananas or anything else. For example, one species might have DNA that has 30% Adenine, 20% Cytosine, 20% Guanine and 30% Thymine, while on the other hand a different species could have 20% Adenine, 30% cytosine, 30% guanine, and 20% thymine. Despite having different proportions all of the percentages of the bases equal to 100% and that is true for every organism. The nitrogen base sequence for a human is 30.9 % Adenine, 29. 4% Thymine, 19.9% Guanine, and 19.8% Cytosine. This sequencing is very important because if this wasn't the exact numbers as shown as above, then you wouldn't get a human, but instead you would get some other form of life. The smallest change in percentage can change the whole organism. For example, the base percentages of a chicken and grasshopper are almost similar, but they are still two different organisms. The base percentages for a chicken are 28.8% Adenine, 29.2% Thymine, 20.5% Guanine, and 21.5% Cytosine. The base percentages for a grasshopper are 29.9& Adenine, 29.3% Thymine, 20.5% Guanine, and 20.7% Cytosine. Even though these two organisms have almost similar percentages and the same amount of guanine, just those small changes in numbers distinguish what the organism will be. The proportions in the bases are what make a human a human rather than a bacteria or yeast. The proportions of yeast are 31.3% Adenine, 32.9% Thymine, 17.7% Guanine, and 17.1% Cytosine. If the nitrogen bases had these proportions in their bases than most likely you will end up with yeast, because these proportions are mainly for yeast, and only yeast. The proportions of E. coli are 24.7% Adenine, 23.6% Thymine, 26% Guanine, and 25.7% Cytosine. Because of these differences in proportions, it is impossible to be bacteria with the proportions of a human. The Nitrogen bases in the DNA play a very big role in determining species. Therefore it is necessary for the sequencing to be right, so yeast can be yeast, and human can be a human. 

-By Kharishma Patel, Deepthy Varghese, Jeswina John, and Miranda Juergens  

8th period, Medical Microbiology, Rickard